Peptide Timeline and Research: Key Dates And Studies In Modern Peptide History

Peptides are one of the most debated topics in health and fitness today. Critics often point to the fact that many peptides are not currently FDA-approved, and that concern is understandable.

The current regulatory landscape creates legitimate questions about sourcing, purity, and quality control. However, a lack of FDA approval does not automatically mean a compound is ineffective or "snake oil." Peptides have a long history of research and development, and several have generated significant interest within the medical community.

The purpose of this article is not to argue that peptides are definitively safe or effective. Rather, we feel the conversation on both sides can be lacking. Therefore, it is necessary to examine their history, explore the research behind them, and explain why these compounds continue to attract attention from researchers, clinicians, and consumers alike.

Key Points You Need To Know! How they work: Peptides are short chains of amino acids that act as messengers to trigger specific functions in the body. Quick History of Peptides: Peptides have been used for over a century, with the most common ones used today being insulin, oxytocin, and GLP-1 New Wave Of Therapeutic Peptides: A new wave of therapeutic peptides has recently come onto the scene. While several have decades of research, the large majority have been in animal studies. However, there is some human data too. Approval Status: Currently, the specific lifestyle and therapeutic peptides we are discussing here are not approved for human use. Legal Loophole: The legal landscape is definitely complicated, but you can legally buy them as research compounds

What Are Peptides? Quick Recap

Key Points You Need To Know! Peptides are short chains of <50 amino acids and act as messengers to trigger specific functions. Think of the difference between a local and a general anesthetic. The ability to trigger specific functions makes them a potential therapy Insulin and GLP1s are common peptides used every day

First, let's go over what peptides specifically are, and then pinpoint what the peptides we're talking about in this article are.

Peptides are simply short chains of amino acids, the same building blocks that make up proteins. In fact, "protein" and "peptide" simply define a compound as having either a large chain of amino acids (protein) or a short chain (peptide).

• Proteins = 50+ amino acids (usually consist of hundreds, creating complex structures)
• Peptides = 2–50 amino acids with highly specific functions

How Do Peptides Work?

Many drugs interact with multiple tissues and receptors throughout the body. While this can be effective, it can also lead to unintended side effects.

Peptides are often attractive to peptides because many are designed to mimic naturally occurring signaling molecules. This allows them to interact with specific receptors and biological pathways involved in a particular function.

For example: 

• Semaglutide (Ozempic) is a synthetic peptide that mimics GLP-1, a hormone involved in appetite regulation and blood sugar control.
• CJC-1295 and Ipamorelin are designed to influence growth hormone release by acting on specific signaling pathways.
• GHK-Cu (Glycyl-L-Histidyl-L-Lysine Copper) is a naturally occurring copper-binding peptide that appears to play a role in tissue repair, collagen production, and wound healing.

This ability to target particular biological processes is one reason peptides have generated so much interest among researchers and clinicians.

What Are The New Peptides?

Peptides aren't new and are already heavily used. Some popular ones are:

• Insulin may be the most commonly used peptide to treat diabetes
• GLP1s are all peptides
• Collagen peptides are "technically" peptides and used in skin care
• Oxytocin, the "love chemical," is especially used during births.

But this isn't what we're talking about. Recently, there has been a new wave of therapeutic peptides, many used for performance, recovery, and aesthetics. 

• BPC-157
• MOTS-C
• GHK-CU
• TB-4

These new therapeutic peptides share a complicated history in terms of their use and legality. This is what has garnered so much interest. Both good and bad.

Discovery Dates Of The 12 Peptides Under Review

Before we get into the timeline, we first want to acknowledge the discovery date of the 12 peptides currently under review with the FDA.

These are the ones most care about, and as you should; the others were deemed to be too insignificant by the FDA to garner a deeper look and are even more experimental with less data.

Keep in mind that it can be difficult to distinguish and determine exact dates due to different terminology used: "discovered", "recognized", "described."

Regardless, you'll notice that most of these have been around much longer than you think; there's a good chance they're older than you!

1. GHK-Cu 1973: (Identified in human plasma by Loren Pickart)

• Primary Focus: Tissue regeneration and anti-aging.
• Therapeutic Applications: Used primarily in dermatology and wound care to stimulate collagen production, accelerate wound healing, and promote skin and hair follicle regeneration

2. DSIP (Emideltide) 1974: (First isolated from rabbit cerebral venous blood)

• Primary Focus: Sleep and neuroendocrine regulation.
• Therapeutic Applications: Studied for treating severe insomnia, regulating disrupted circadian rhythms, reducing emotional stress, and mitigating opioid or alcohol withdrawal symptoms.

3. Thymosin Beta-4 1981: (Sequenced and characterized from calf thymus tissue)

• Primary Focus: Cellular healing and tissue repair.
• Therapeutic Applications: Heavily researched for wound healing, corneal injuries, cardiovascular repair following myocardial infarction (heart attack), and reducing scar tissue formation.

4. Semax 1980s: (Developed by Soviet researchers / Institute of Molecular Genetics)

• Primary Focus: Neuroprotection and cognitive enhancement.
• Therapeutic Applications: Clinically utilized for ischemic stroke recovery, transient ischemic attacks (TIAs), optic nerve disease, and managing ADHD or memory decline. 

5. Melanotan II 1987: (Synthesized at the University of Arizona)

• Primary Focus: Tanning induction and sexual dysfunction.
• Therapeutic Applications: Originally engineered as a photoprotective agent against skin cancer by inducing melanin production; also researched for treating erectile dysfunction.

6. KPV 1989: (Recognized as the active anti-inflammatory fragment of α-MSH)

• Primary Focus: Cellular anti-inflammatory and gut repair.
• Therapeutic Applications: Extensively studied for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD/colitis), mast cell activation syndrome, and inflammatory skin conditions like eczema or psoriasis.

7. Epitalon, Early 1990s: (St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation)

• Primary Focus: Gerontology, longevity, and telomere biology.
• Therapeutic Applications: Researched as an anti-aging compound designed to upregulate telomerase activity, extend telomere length, and normalize pineal gland melatonin secretion.

8. BPC-157 1993: (First described in the scientific literature)

• Primary Focus: Gastrointestinal and musculoskeletal healing.
• Therapeutic Applications: Evaluated for healing soft tissue injuries (tendons, ligaments, muscles), gastric ulcers, leaky gut syndrome, and inflammatory joint diseases.

9. LL-37 1995: (Identified as the active human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide)

• Primary Focus: Antimicrobial defense and immune modulation.
• Therapeutic Applications: Investigated as a topical treatment for chronic diabetic foot ulcers, surgical site infections, and combating drug-resistant bacterial biofilms.

10. PEG-MGF 2002: (Engineered as a pegylated long-acting MGF variant)

• Primary Focus: Muscle wasting and local tissue growth.
• Therapeutic Applications: Researched for reversing sarcopenia (age-related muscle loss), treating muscle-wasting diseases like dystrophy, and accelerating recovery from severe muscle tears.

11. Dihexa 2011–2012: (Synthesized and patented by Washington State University)

• Primary Focus: Cognitive restoration and neurodegeneration.
• Therapeutic Applications: Engineered specifically to combat Alzheimer's disease, dementia, and traumatic brain injury (TBI) by stimulating massive synaptic connectivity (synaptogenesis).

12. MOTS-c 2015: (Discovered as a mitochondrial-derived signaling peptide)

• Primary Focus: Mitochondrial health and metabolic restoration.
• Therapeutic Applications: Evaluated for treating type 2 diabetes, obesity, insulin resistance, and age-related exercise intolerance by acting as an exercise mimetic at the cellular level.

Timeline Of Peptides In Medicine

Of the 12 peptides currently under FDA review, nine trace their origins to discoveries made before the year 2000, with several having more than 40 years of documented scientific history.

But these are the "new" peptides, and their history goes back much farther.

Here are some key times and events throughout their 120+ year history. It should go without saying, these are only a handful of meaningful events.

1901 – First Synthetic Peptides Created

• Nobel laureate chemist Emil Fischer created the very first synthetic peptide (glycylglycine) (Goodman, 2003).
• While a very simple dipeptide (just two amino acids), he proved it was possible for researchers to join amino acids.

1921–1922 – Isolation and First Medical Use of Insulin

• In 1921, scientists Frederick Banting and Charles Best successfully isolated insulin from animal pancreases (Banting et al., 2022).
• In 1922, 14-year-old Leonard Thompson became the first human to receive an insulin injection to treat type 1 diabetes.

1953–1954 – First Synthetic Peptides (Oxytocin)

• Chemist Vincent du Vigneaud successfully mapped the sequence of oxytocin and vasopressin and successfully synthesized them in a lab (du Vigneaud).
• This proved that researchers could synthesize peptides without relying on animal harvesting. 
• Du Vigneaud wins the 1955 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

1973 – GHK-Cu Discovered in Human Plasma 

• Biochemist Dr. Loren Pickart first isolates the popular peptide GHK-Cu.
• GHK-Cu is a unique copper-binding tripeptide (Glycyl-L-Histidyl-L-Lysine) from human albumin (Pickartt & Thaler, 1973).
• Pickart observes that the peptide causes old, aging liver cells to begin functioning like young cells. This marks the foundational discovery of GHK-Cu as a powerful cellular remodeling and gene-modulating agent. 

1978–1982 – The First Biotech Recombinant Peptide (Humulin)

• In 1982, Genentech created Humulin by modifying E. coli bacteria to grow human insulin chains (Goeddel et al., 1979). 
• This was the first-ever recombinant DNA drug given FDA approval for humans. This helped solve commercial purity and supply limitations. 

1980s – Soviet "Secret" Longevity Bioregulators & Epitalon

• Dr. Vladimir Khavinson and his specialized team of Russian military researchers began extracting short peptide chains from the organs of cattle to boost the biological resilience of soldiers and cosmonauts (Anisimov et al., 1994). 
• His team synthesized Epitalon, a peptide modeled after a pineal gland extract.  
• This sparked a massive body of Russian literature focused on telomere preservation and cellular lifespan.

1981 – The Complete Sequencing of Thymosin Beta-4 (TB-500 precursor)

• Building on earlier calf thymus research by Dr. Allan Goldstein, scientists successfully map the complete amino acid sequence of Bovine Thymosin Beta-4 (Low et al., 1981).
• Thymosin Beta-4 is a critical regulator of cell migration and actin polymerization.
• Decades later, TB-500, a 17-amino-acid synthetic fragment of this chain, became extremely popular in the wellness community.

1985 – Leuprolide, The First Heavily Modified Peptide Approved 

• In 1985, Leuproglide was the first heavily modified synthetic peptide approved by the FDA for human use (Chwalisz, 2022)
• While specifically approved to treat prostate cancer, this demonstrated modified peptide can successfully withstand bodily degradation.

1986 – The Discovery of GLP-1

• In 1986, researchers formally isolated Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) (Mojsov et al., 1986)
• This singular discovery resulted in the following decades of research leading to exenatide, liraglutide, and semaglutide. 
• While peptides have been used for over a century, the success of GLP-1 drugs arguably sparked the modern peptide boom in the general public. 

1987 – Melanotan Developed at the University of Arizona

• Researchers Dr. Victor Hruby and Dr. Mac Hadley synthesized Melanotan, a long-acting analog of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) (Al-Obeidi, et al., 1989)
• Melanotan demonstrated that peptides could be engineered for greater potency and duration and would play a role in peptide design.

1993 – BPC-157 Is First Described

• Dr. Predrag Sikiric and colleagues publish early research on BPC-157, a stable gastric peptide isolated from human gastric juice.
• This marks the beginning of BPC-157 research and establishes the peptide as a potential regulator of tissue repair and gastrointestinal healing.
• BPC-157 has become one of the most popular peptides.

1998 – GHRP-6 Research Expands

• Researchers increasingly investigate Growth Hormone Releasing Peptide-6 (GHRP-6) for its ability to stimulate growth hormone secretion.
• GHRP-6 helps demonstrate that small synthetic peptides can influence major endocrine pathways without administering hormones directly.

2003 – Tendon Healing Research Published

• Researchers publish one of the most cited studies demonstrating accelerated Achilles tendon healing with BPC-157 in rodents (Staresinic et al., 2003).
• Interest in BPC-157 expands beyond gastrointestinal research into sports medicine, injury recovery, and musculoskeletal regeneration.

2006 – CJC-1295 Human Trials Begin

• Human trials for CJC-1295, a long-acting growth hormone-releasing hormone, begin testing its ability to elevate growth hormone and IGF-1 levels (Teichman et al., 2006).
• CJC-1295 demonstrates how peptide engineering can dramatically extend half-life while maintaining biological activity.

2006 – Human BPC-157 Research Reported

• Researchers report investigating BPC-157 in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (Skiric et al, 2006).
• Although large-scale clinical development never followed, this represents one of the earliest reported human applications of BPC-157.

2010–2011 – Musculoskeletal Peptide Research Expands

• Multiple studies investigate peptides such as BPC-157 and Thymosin Beta-4 for tendon, ligament, muscle, and connective tissue healing.
• This marks a shift where peptide research begins moving towards regenerative medicine and recovery-focused applications.

2015 – Human Safety Trial Registered

• A human safety study involving oral BPC-157 is formally registered.
• However, this human trial was ultimately abandoned. 
• Still, this represents another step toward clinical evaluation and reflects growing scientific interest in therapeutic peptide applications.

2022 – WADA Prohibits BPC-157

• The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) adds BPC-157 to its Prohibited List.
• Ironically, this brings more attention to BPC-157 among athletes, coaches, and ultimately the broader performance-enhancement community.

September 2023 – FDA Restricts 19 Peptides From Compounding

• The FDA places 19 peptides into Category 2 consideration, preventing them from being able to be compounded while under review.
• This placed significant restrictions on routine compounding while they remained under review.
• Peptide regulation becomes a major topic within the medical, wellness, and compounding industries.

2025 – Peptide Market Explodes

• Demand for peptide therapies reaches unprecedented levels as wellness clinics, telehealth companies, and consumers increasingly adopt peptide-based interventions.
• Peptides transition from a niche medical topic into a mainstream health, longevity, and wellness phenomenon.

April 2026 – FDA Proposes Removing 12 Peptides From Category 2

• The FDA announces plans to remove 12 previously restricted peptides from Category 2 and reevaluate their regulatory status.
• The proposal signals a potentially significant change in peptide accessibility and future compounding practices.

July 2026 – FDA Advisory Review Scheduled

• The FDA schedules an advisory review to further evaluate the regulatory status of several compounded peptides.
• The outcome could help shape the future regulatory landscape for peptide therapies in the United States.

Studies On Peptides

Now, let's look at some of the studies that exist. A common claim is that there's little data.  The problem is that there are so many different peptides that it's impossible to give a single blanket answer.

Animal Studies

When speaking about peptides, the common argument is most data is on rodents. More specifically, it's usually presented in a manner that downplays the depth of research that exists, i.e., "You're injecting yourself with a compound that has 3 mouse studies".

This drastically undermines the depth of research that exists. We collected data on some of the more popular peptides to provide an estimate of animal studies that exist.

Some large reviews cite how many they included, which makes it easy. For others, we had to estimate by running the reference lists of reviews (often 100+) through several AI applications and comparing their findings.

Therefore, these are not precise measurements but rather reasonable estimates. Furthermore, this is not meant to suggest you should go and use these. It's merely to show that. 

BPC-157

• Vaseraddi et al., 2025: A total of 544 articles from 1993 to 2024 were identified concerning BPC-157 and joint health. After duplicates were removed, 36 studies were included.
• Demeitras et al., 2025: List around 30 studies on BPC-157 on rodents concerning organ tissue

Thymosin β4 (TB-500)

• Crockford et al., 2010: Reviews approximately 20 years of preclinical research across wound healing, cardiac repair, corneal healing, and tissue regeneration.
• Maar et al., 2021: Large review on TB-4 and anti-aging, which cites 40-50 rodent studies.

Epitalon

• Araj et al., 2025: Review containing 30–40 rodent studies examining lifespan, cancer, aging biomarkers, neuroendocrine function, immunity, retinal health, kidney function, oxidative stress, and reproductive aging.
• Anisimov et al., 2003: Lifespan study in mice followed animals throughout life.

MOTS-C

• Wan et al., 2023: Review of MOTS-c research contains approximately 17–21 rodent studies related to metabolism, aging, stress resistance, cardiovascular function, inflammation, bone metabolism, exercise adaptation, and aging-related physiology.
• Zheng et al., 2023: Review of MOTS-c biology and contains approximately 10–13 rodent studies

Human Studies

If the anti-peptide crowd really wanted to critique peptides, you'd think they would talk about the human studies that do exist. But they don't. Rather, a common claim is that "there's no human data" or "limited human data".

In general, this is true as extensive human data is lacking. However, there are studies that exist, and when you look at them, two things pop out:

1. While most are small in size, the results are overwhelmingly positive. Some studies show positive results in 85% of the participants (Lee & Padgett, 2021). 
2. There are virtually no significant adverse effects in most studies. The primary issues tend to be at the injection point (redness, itchiness) and gut issues (diarrhea). 

BPC-157 ( BPC-157 + TB-4)

• Veljaca et al., 2003:  Patients with ulcerative colitis reportedly showed improvement following BPC-157 treatment. This is often cited as one of the few human investigations of BPC-157.
• Lee & Padgett, 2021: 14 of 16 patients receiving therapy saw significant reductions in knee pain for 6+ months.
• BPC-157 Safety Trial (NCT02637284): A human trial evaluating oral BPC-157 for inflammatory bowel disease was registered. Limited results were publicly released.

CJC-1295

• Teichman et al., 2006: Healthy men and women (21– 61 years old) saw an increase in growth hormone secretion and IGF1 levels.
• Ionescu et al., 2006: 20 healthy men (20-40yo) saw an increase in growth hormone secretion and IGF1 levels.

Ipamorelin

• (Madsbad et al., 1999): Healthy adults showed quick increases in growth hormone without spikes in cortisol or ACTH.
• Phase II Trial (discontinued): Failed to improve stomach and bowel motility in patients recovering from surgery.

Tesamorelin

• Falutz et al., 2010: 404 HIV patients saw an 18% reduction in belly fat after 52 weeks of daily use.
• Adrian et al., 2019: Adult patients experienced a measurable increase in muscle size and density.
• Stanley et al., 2019: Adult patients had significant reductions in liver fat accumulation.

Sermorelin

• Prakash & Goa, 1999: Children with growth deficiencies experienced safe, accelerated height growth.
• Corpas et al., 1992: Elderly men successfully restored youthful growth hormone and IGF-1 levels.

Melanotan II

• Dorr et al., 1996: Healthy volunteers saw increased skin tanning along with side effects like nausea.
• Wessells et al., 1998: Men with erectile dysfunction achieved spontaneous erections but experienced severe nausea.

Epitalon 

• Khavinson et al., 2003: Elderly patients tracked over several years showed lower mortality and better immune function.
• Anisimov et al., 2006: Older adults restored low melatonin levels and corrected their sleep cycles. 

Semax

• Gusev et al., 2018: Stroke patients given the nasal spray recovered their cognitive and neurological functions faster.
• Polunin et al., 2012: Patients with optic nerve damage achieved measurable improvements in eyesight.

Selank

• Zozulya et al., 2008: Anxiety patients reduced their symptoms as effectively as traditional medication without feeling groggy.
• Radionova et al., 2011: Anxious individuals saw lowered physiological inflammation markers during stressful periods.

Final Say: Peptides History, Studies, and What It Means

If you're like most people, you're probably surprised by how much history and research peptides actually have behind them. So does that mean you should run out and buy some? Not quite.

While the research is fascinating and many peptides show promise, this should not be taken as conclusive proof of their safety or effectiveness.

The biggest issue today is ensuring clean, high-quality production. Because many peptides remain confined to the grey market, oversight and quality control can be limited, increasing the risk of mislabeled, underdosed, or contaminated products.

At the same time, more human trials are needed before broad acceptance can occur. And this is where the conversation should be focused. When you look at the history of peptides and the accompanying research, it's clear that many warrant further investigation. Rather than simply dismissing them because they lack FDA approval, we should be asking how quality-controlled research and production can be expanded.

The reality is that people are seeking simple, effective, and cost-effective treatments. Peptides may ultimately prove to be that solution, and with the research we do have, they seem very promising. Or maybe they won't. We don't know. 

Currently, we can't be positive, and only more research will determine that.

What we do know is that restricting research and development won't make these compounds disappear. It won't change whether they are effective. It will only make FDA approval more difficult and push demand further into the unregulated market, where quality control and consumer safety become even greater concerns.

References

1. Adrian, S., Amati, F., Gill, T. M., Vaughan, D. E., & Nair, K. S. (2019). The growth hormone releasing hormone analogue, tesamorelin, decreases muscle fat and increases muscle area in adults with HIV. The Journal of Frailty & Aging, 8(3), 154–160. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2260134124003049 
2. Alba, M., Fintini, D., Sagazio, A., Lawrence, B., Castaigne, J. P., Frohman, L. A., & Salvatori, R. (2006). Once-daily administration of CJC-1295, a long-acting growth hormone-releasing hormone analog, normalizes growth in the GHRH knockout mouse. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 291(6), E1290-E1294. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00201.2006 
3. Al-Obeidi, F., Hadley, M. E., Pettitt, B. M., & Hruby, V. J. (1989). Design of potent linear alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone antagonists. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 32(1), 174–179.  https://experts.arizona.edu/en/publications/design-of-potent-linear-melanotropin-410-analogues-modified-in-po/
4. Anisimov, V. N., Khavinson, V. K.h, & Morozov, V. G. (1994). Twenty years of study on effects of pineal peptide preparation: epithalamin in experimental gerontology and oncology. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 719, 483–493. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1994.tb56853.x
5. Araj, S. K., Brzezik, J., Mądra-Gackowska, K., & Szeleszczuk, Ł. (2025). Overview of Epitalon—Highly Bioactive Pineal Tetrapeptide with Promising Properties. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(6), 2691. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26062691
6. Banting, F. G., Best, C. H., Collip, J. B., Campbell, W. R., & Fletcher, A. A. (1922). Pancreatic Extracts in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus. Canadian Medical Association journal, 12(3), 141–146. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20314060/
7. Chwalisz K. (2022). Clinical development of the GnRH agonist leuprolide acetate depot. F&S reports, 4(2 Suppl), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xfre.2022.11.011
8. Corpas, E., Harman, S. M., Pineyro, M. A., Roberson, R., & Blackman, M. R. (1992). Growth hormone-releasing hormone (1-29) twice daily-infusion restores youthful profiles of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I secretion in healthy elderly men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 75(2), 530–535. https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/75/2/530/2649366
9. du Vigneaud, V., Ressler, C., Swan, J. M., Roberts, C. W., Katsoyannis, P. G., & Gordon, S. (1953). The synthesis of an octapeptide amide with the hormonal activity of oxytocin. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 75(19), 4879–4880. doi.org
10. Dorr, R. T., Lines, R., Levine, N., Brooks, C., Xiang, L., Hruby, V. J., & Hadley, M. E. (1996). Evaluation of melanotan-II, a superpotent cyclic melanotropic peptide in a pilot phase-I clinical study. Life Sciences, 58(20), 1777–1784. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0024320596001609
11. Falutz, J., Allas, S., Blot, K., Potvin, D., Kotler, D., Somero, M., Berger, D., Brown, S., Marsolais, C., & Grinspoon, S. (2010). Long-term safety and effects of tesamorelin, a growth hormone-releasing factor analogue, in HIV-infected patients with abdominal lipodystrophy. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 53(3), 311–322. https://journals.lww.com/aidsonline/abstract/2008/09120
12. Goeddel, D. V., Kleid, D. G., Bolivar, F., Heyneker, H. L., Yansura, D. G., Crea, R., Hirose, T., Kraszewski, A., Itakura, K., & Riggs, A. D. (1979). Expression in Escherichia coli of chemically synthesized genes for human insulin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 76(1), 106–110. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.76.1.106
13. Goodman, M., Cai, W. and Smith, N.D. (2003), The bold legacy of Emil Fischer. J. Peptide Sci., 9: 594-603. https://doi.org/10.1002/psc.476
14. Fischer E, Fourneau E. Ueber einige Derivate des Glycocolls. Ber Dtsch Chem Ges. 1901;34(2):2868–2877.
15. Gusev, E. I., Skvortsova, V. I., & Semenov, P. A. (2018). Efficacy and safety of the synthetic peptide Semax in acute ischemic stroke: Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry, 118(4), 22–29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325375504
16. Ionescu, M., Frohman, L. A., & Teichman, S. L. (2006). Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295, a long-acting growth hormone-releasing hormone analog. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 91(12), 4792-4797. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17018654/ 
17. Józwiak, M., Kaczmarek, K., & colleagues. (2025). Multifunctionality and possible medical application of the BPC 157 peptide: Literature and patent review. Pharmaceuticals, 18(2), 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph18020185
18. Khavinson, V. K., Gomilko, A. P., & Morozov, V. G. (2003). Long-term study of the peptide bioremediator Epithalon in a geriatric population. Advances in Gerontology, 12, 115–121.
19. Lee, E., & Padgett, B. (2021). Intra-Articular Injection of BPC 157 for Multiple Types of Knee Pain. Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 27(4), 8–13. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34324435/
20. Low, T. L., Hu, S. K., & Goldstein, A. L. (1981). Complete amino acid sequence of bovine thymosin beta 4: a thymic hormone that induces terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase activity in thymocyte populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 78(2), 1162–1166. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.78.2.1162
21. Madsbad, S., Bradford, B., Pedersen, O., Wright, D., & Bowles, R. (1999). Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of ipamorelin, a selective growth hormone secretagogue, in humans. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 84(10), 3636–3641. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1018955126402
22. Maar, K., Hetenyi, R., Maar, S., Faskerti, G., Hanna, D., Lippai, B., Takatsy, A., & Bock-Marquette, I. (2021). Utilizing Developmentally Essential Secreted Peptides Such as Thymosin Beta-4 to Remind the Adult Organs of Their Embryonic State—New Directions in Anti-Aging Regenerative Therapies. Cells, 10(6), 1343. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10061343 
23. McGuire, F. P., & colleagues. (2025). Regeneration or risk? A narrative review of BPC-157 for musculoskeletal healing. Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12446177/ 
24. Mojsov, S., Heinrich, G., Wilson, I. B., Ravazzola, M., Orci, L., & Habener, J. F. (1986). Preproglucagon gene expression in pancreas and intestine diversifies at the level of post-translational processing. The Journal of biological chemistry, 261(25), 11880–11889. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3528148/
25. Pickart, L., & Thaler, M. M. (1973). Tripeptide in human serum which prolongs survival of normal liver cells and stimulates growth in neoplastic liver. Nature New Biology, 243(124), 85–87. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4349963/
26. Pickart, L., & Margolina, A. (2018). Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data. International journal of molecular sciences, 19(7), 1987. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19071987
27. Polunin, G. S., Makarov, I. A., & Shmyreva, D. N. (2012). Clinical assessment of the therapeutic efficiency of a new domestic nootropic medication Semax in the treatment of optic nerve atrophy. Vestnik Oftalmologii, 128(1), 34–38.
28. Prakash, A., & Goa, K. L. (1999). Sermorelin: A review of its use in the diagnosis and treatment of children with idiopathic growth hormone deficiency. BioDrugs, 12(2), 139–157.https://europepmc.org/article/MED/18031173
29. Radionova, K. S., Kozlovskaya, M. M., & Seredenin, S. B. (2011). The regulatory peptide Selank blocks stress-induced changes in the cytokine balance in patients with anxiety disorders. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 151(6), 701–704.
30. Sikiric, P., et al.. (1994). The beneficial effect of BPC 157, a 15 amino acid peptide BPC fragment, on gastric and duodenal lesions induced by restraint stress, cysteamine and 96% ethanol in rats. A comparative study with H2 receptor antagonists, dopamine promoters and gut peptides. Life sciences, 54(5), PL63–PL68. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7904712/ 
31. Sikiric, P., et al. (2019). Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157, Robert's stomach cytoprotection/adaptive cytoprotection and stomach organoprotection. Biomedicines, 7(1), 11. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31158953/ 
32. Seiwerth, S., Rucman, R., Turkovic, B., et al. (2021). Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and wound healing. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12, 627533. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.627533
33. Stanley, T. L., Feldpausch, M. N., Oh, J., Branch, K. L., Lee, H., Torriani, M., & Grinspoon, S. K. (2019). Effects of tesamorelin on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in HIV: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet HIV, 6(12), e821–e830. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanhiv/article/PIIS2352-3018(19)30338-8/abstract 
34. Teichman, S. L., Neale, A., Lawrence, B., et al. (2006). Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone, in healthy adults. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 91(3), 799-805. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2005-1536
35. Wan, W., Zhang, L., Lin, Y., Zhang, Y., Wu, C., Liu, H., Liu, K., & Zhang, H. (2023). Mitochondria-derived peptide MOTS-c: Effects and mechanisms related to stress, metabolism and aging. Journal of Translational Medicine, 21, 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-023-03885-2
36. Wessells, H., Levine, N., Hadley, M. E., Hruby, V. J., Dorr, R., & Juarez, M. (1998). Synthetic melanotropic peptide initiates erections in men with psychogenic erectile dysfunction: Double-blind, placebo controlled crossover study. The Journal of Urology, 160(2), 389–393. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022534701629033
37. Zheng Y, Wei Z and Wang T (2023) MOTS-c: A promising mitochondrial-derived peptide for therapeutic exploitation. Front. Endocrinol. 14:1120533. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1120533
38. Zozulya, A. A., Neznamov, G. G., Suesha, K. A., Kost, N. V., Gabaeva, M. V., Sokolov, O. Y., ... & Seredenin, S. B. (2008). Efficacy and mechanisms of action of the new peptide anxiolytic Selank in the therapy of generalized anxiety disorder and neurasthenia. Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry, 108(4), 38–46. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299052506